8. Urban Sustainability - Conclusions

From the principles of Earth Charter or One Planet Living to models created by think tank of Philips Center or Ecocity Builders, sustainability has been envisioned in an integrated framework of interrelated dimensions. Cities and human systems are considered as parts of larger natural ecosystems and socio-economic communities, in which all things are linked to each other in the web of life. Thus, urban sustainability can only be achieved with a systems approach which recognizes this profound interconnectedness. Urban sustainability visions are not fixed images but rather flexible and evolutionary perspectives.

The core philosophy of sustainability lies in the appreciation of nature as the symbol of integrity, stability and beauty. Thus, a sustainable city would be a green city, in which nature is well protected and integrated harmoniously in urban design and planning. Moreover, there is no concept of waste in nature, energy and materials flow and regenerate through ongoing cycles. Thus, a sustainable city would be a regenerative city, which applies nature’s wisdom in its waste recycling and using local, renewable material and energy. Respecting nature, living more simply within the Earth’s limits and reducing our impact on the Earth’s resources, this implies the moderation in population reproduction, economic production and consumption. These are crucial steps towards a low-carbon economy, particularly in the context of Peak Oil, climate change and resource depletion.

Written beautifully in the Earth Charter, the key principle of sustainability is “care for the community of life, with understanding, compassion and love”. Sustainability cherishes sense of community, social capital, solidarity and a culture of peace with mutual respect, sharing and caring. Cooperation rather than competition with nature and with each other is advocated. Above all, happiness, which is the real meaning of life, does not lie on materials terms alone but rather on our spiritual and social relationship in community.

A sustainable city would be a human friendly city. This human friendliness does not come only from its open-minded, helpful and friendly people but also this attribute can be manifested and fostered by thoughtful urban design and planning, which encourage social interaction and cultural exchange through public spaces, walkable neighborhoods…

Any imbalance or injustice implies unstability and high potential risk of collapse, thus it can not sustain in the long run. Beside ecological balance, a sustainable city would be a city of social and economic justice because equity is another primary principle of sustainability. A sustainable city would not only be human friendly but also humane; an inclusive city which embraces all its people, regardless of their race, gender, age, social or economic status. On the other hand, culture of sustainability appreciates tolerance of differences, and diversity is seen as source of richness rather than conflicts.

Ideals of democracy, accountability, transparency and inclusive decision making are essential attributes of good governance, which in turn plays a vital role as guiding forces for cities on the journey toward sustainability. Since actors of governance comprise not only the government but also the private sector and civil society, active citizen participation is vital to the success of urban sustainability. Nowaday, with the development of web 2.0, e-governance and other ICT applications in urban management and operation promise huge potential in improving public services as well as enhancing citizen participation and interaction in decision making.

Recommendations for HCMC

A sustainable city is also a desirable and loveable city. This is confirmed through the global online survey and the questionnaire for HCMC’s residents in which sustainability models are welcomed by most of respondents. On the other hand, reflection on reality of HCMC’s urban performance presents quite a pessimistic picture. HCMC in perceptions of respondents is still far away from urban sustainability visions. Many problems of traffic, pollution, flooding, overload infrastructure, noise, lack of green and public spaces, corruption and bad planning pose great challenges to sustainable development of this soon-to-be megacity. This implies that, although compact development is a good and efficient model, it would functions positively only when there is reasonable size of population within its carrying and management capacity, plus good governance and urban planning that harmonious with local nature.

In addition, observation from the field study at some slum areas in HCMC also shows that there are many people still live in very bad conditions and everyday still have to struggle to survive. Sustainability would be a very far away dream if the basic subsistence needs have not been met. Therefore, the city should assist the poor through social housing, health care policies, job opportunities, especially in terms of accessibility to education and training. Because in the long run, public empowerment is crucial to win over poverty and to go further on the way toward future urban sustainability.

Better public transportation system, well-organized, diverse and efficient is needed for crowded HCMC. Public transportation should be more comfortable as the quality of service should be improved so that it can be more attractive and become priority in people’s choice, beside affordability.

Walkability and cyclability should be integrated into public transportation system. Pedestrians and cyclists should be encouraged through incentive policies and programmes. On the other hand, limitation of cars and motorbikes, particularly in central downtown can help saving energy, improving environment and community sense with safer traffic, better public interaction and less pollution.

Urbanization should be approached with precaution. Systems thinking and long term perspectives should be applied in strategic urban planning. Scenarios of climate change, risk of salination, flooding and their impacts should be taken into account to prepare for adaptation and mitigation. Some current new urban projects expanding into low lying land and highly sensitive areas such as Thu Thiem, new harbour in Nha Be, tourist city in Can Gio (the UNESCO biosphere reserve) should be re-examined very carefully.

Farm lands and green spaces should be preserved for microclimate regulation, water retention, urban biodiversity as well as food security and other beneficial ecosystem services. Greening the city activities should be encouraged such as planting street trees, building community gardens, parks, covering city with flowers, plants wherever possible (abandoned lots, balconies, roofs…) to make city more beautiful and refreshing.

Urban designs such as green pavement, waterparks can facilitate rainwater infiltration to replenish groundwater and mitigate urban flood. Cisterns can be used at household level to catch and channel rainwater for non-drinking purposes.

It is necessary for HCMC to start as soon as possible integrated waste management instead of current landfilling method otherwise later HCMC will inevitably face the waste crisis. It should be noted that, reducing waste, separating waste at source and recycling can only be promoted efficiently with enhanced public awareness.

Cleaner, renewable energies and their supporting infrastructure should be taken into consideration in the long term development of the city. Some examples can be the model of solar street lighting, solar-panel on roof of big buildings, cleaner fuels for public transportation…

Capacity building, public awareness raising and education for sustainability

Good leadership with urban sustainability vision is required for future success of a city. Moreover, active citizen participation is also vital. Thus, capacity building for local managers, officers, as well as education and public awareness raising can be powerful tools for positive social change and for nurturing a culture of sustainability.

In general education for sustainability should be integrated creatively[1] at all level of education system and even should start at family education. Holistic perception is necessary for humanity to live sustainably by understanding our co-existence on this planet, how we are interconnected and mutually interdependent. This leads us to cooperate with all other humans and other living beings, and encourages a meaningful lifestyle in which we live more close to nature, more simply but healthily and richly. Therefore, education should place a high focus on living values, building inner strength and interpersonal skills, fostering compassion, respect and understanding, celebrating diversity, multicultures, equality and social responsibility. A holistic education aims for future citizens who live with love and care, who find joy in services and who appreciate the Good, the True and the Beautiful in life.

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[*] Beside conventional teaching, we can apply various creative ways of education such as teaching by being examples (green teachers); team work to teach cooperative spirit;  experience-based learning, through school gardens, working in the field, helping other people in need, voluntary services in local community; visual learning with the help of movies, audio, documentaries, internet; project-based learning, problem-based learning; excursions to natural sites, forests, national parks; learning through arts; teaching meditation for children to help them improving concentration, having inner peace and developing spirituality…

7. Good governance

“Good governance must be built from the ground up. It cannot be imposed, either by national authorities, or by international agencies. Good governance is the fruit of true dedication, selfless leadership, and a politics of integrity.” (Annan 1997)

Good governance plays a decisive role in urban management, planning and operating towards sustainability. While government is an entity (an official governing organization), governance refers to the process of decision making and the process by which decisions are implemented (UNESCAP). These governing processes involve not only the state (government), but also the private sector and the whole civil society.

Three interrelated actors of governance

All three interconnected actors are critical for urban sustainability. Government creates a conducive political and legal environment; the private sector generates jobs and income; and civil society facilitates political and social interaction - mobilizing groups to participate in economic, social and political activities (UNDP 1997). Since each part has weaknesses and strengths, it is important for good governance to promote constructive interaction, partnership, cooperation and coherence among all three.

The box below describes an ideal image of good governance, adapted from UNESCAP and UNDP. Main attributes of good governance are long term vision, openness - transparency, responsibility - accountability, equity - inclusiveness, democratic participation - citizen involvement, effectiveness, efficiency and responsiveness to the needs of the people.

Key attributes of good governance (UNESCAP[1] & UNDP[2])

Participation

All men and women should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests. Such broad participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities to participate constructively.

Rule of law

Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially.

Transparency

Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions and information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and enough information is provided to understand and monitor them.

Responsiveness

Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

Consensus oriented

Good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved.

Equity and inclusiveness

A society’s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being.

Effectiveness and efficiency

Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources.

Accountability

Decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society organisations are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders.

Strategic vision

Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and sustainable development. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded.

These features assure that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities and the needs of future generations are taken into account, and the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. Good governance also contributes to peace and security because it gives societies sound structures for inclusive, equitable economic and social development. “In post-conflict settings, good governance can promote reconciliation and offer a path for consolidating peace” (Annan 1997).

Good governance demands the consent and the participation of the governed and the full and lasting involvement of all citizens (Annan 1997). Key strategies for cultivating good governance include developing more decentralized state, active civic organizations, and responsible private sectors (Wheeler et al. 2005).

Decentralization is an important strategy to attain citizen involvement and government responsiveness. Since power and decisions are closer to local people, decentralized government is more knowledgeable and accessible. It can respond faster, more effectively to people’s needs, with more accountability and transparency. Resource use would be more equitable and the gap between the rich and the poor would be narrowed (Wheeler et al. 2005).

As Kofi Annan once said (1997), good governance has to begin with the will of the people. The will of the people must be the basis of governmental authority. That is the foundation of democracy. Democratization is definitely vital in building good governance, but it requires mature civic awareness, ongoing education, the development of government structures, institutions, and time. “Once established, democracies need to be tended carefully in order to stay healthy and provide good governance for the people” (Wheeler et al. 2005).

Nowadays, the development of ICTs promises a huge potential of facilitating governance processes. Core components of e-governance include e-participation, e-administration and e-service delivery[3]. E-governance can enhance government and public institution efficiency, transparency and accountability by providing better public service and information delivery to citizens and others. Moreover, e-governance fosters greater interaction between authorities and citizens, thus encouraging more public participation and involvement. Various online tools can be used, such as RSS feeds, tag clouds, interactive map, webcasts for information; blogs, online polls for consultation; e-petitions, wikis, forum and virtual worlds for participation (WEF 2011). Social networks also support e-governance with more equity, decentralization and democratization.

On the other hand, e-governance can make a significant positive impact on reducing carbon dioxide emissions through the dematerialization of public service delivery. Many paper-based services can be digitalized and situations where face-to-face interaction has been previously required (to prove identity) can be done virtually (GeSI 2008).

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[1] UNESCAP, Good governance: http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/ProjectActivities/Ongoing/gg/governance.asp

[2] Governance for sustainable human development (UNDP 1997):  http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy

[3] Governance assessment portal: http://www.gaportal.org/areas-of-governance/e-governance

6. Social connectedness and cultural vitality

“When you are connected to yourself, you live with integrity – you act on your values and you are committed to truth and honesty. When you are connected to others, you commit to living in community, to caring for the common good, and to working for equality, justice and democracy. You commit to living joyfully with family, friends and the wider community. When you are connected to the planet, you try to live more sustainably, not using up or destroying nature.” (Andrews 2006)

“If the definition of a sustainable society involves meeting human needs, it is worth asking what human needs are, and whether or not the system we are designing meets real human needs in a synergistic and positively reinforcing way” (Holocene 2004). According to Manfred Max-Neef[1], most of our needs are related to the social (protection, affection, understanding, participation) and cultural (recreation, creation, identity) aspects of life. Once the basic need for subsistence has been met, the fundamental human needs are understood as an interrelated and interactive system, not as a hierarchy as postulated by Maslow[2] (Hallsmith 2003). It was also reflected in the core principle of the Earth Charter “Respect and Care for the community of life: to care for the community of life with understanding, compassion and love; to build democratic societies that are just, sustainable, participatory and peaceful”.

Social and cultural intertwined dimensions of urban sustainability

Social sustainability

According to the WACOSS’s model, socially sustainable communities are equitable, diverse, connected, democratic and provide a good quality of life (Hodgson 2008). So, a sustainable city is a just and inclusive city, where benefits of development would be distributed fairly across society. It is a city for all, regardless of their status, gender, race, ethnicity or religion. “An inclusive city provides the opportunities and support that enables all residents to develop fully and allow them access to decent housing, transport, education, recreation, communication, employment and the judiciary, as well as cultural and religious expression. In an inclusive city, residents take part in decision-making that ranges from the political to issues of daily life. Such participation injects a sense of belonging, identity, place into residents, and guarantees them a stake in the benefits of urban development” (UN-HABITAT 2010).

In an inclusive city, diversity is respected; people are tolerant of differences, and are open-minded. This creates condition for true communication can develop. Communication leads to trust, trust to sharing, sharing to co-operation and thus community solidarity is strengthened.

As human beings, we all need meaningful relationships with others, the sense of community, the sense of connectedness, knowing that another person cares, supports and looks out for us. This corresponds with Maslow’s need for love/belonging and Max-Neef’s need for affection and participation. People with a strong sense of community are more likely to report being in good health and less likely to feel isolated than those that have a weak sense of community (Jochmann 2010).

Research has shown that communities where there are high levels of volunteerism and many opportunities for people to have contact with others outside of work or school have more consensus and are more resilient (Hallsmith 2003). Thus, public spaces in city are very important for communication, interaction and exchange to build sense of community. Jan Gehl[5] once said, “a sustainable city would be a very people-friendly city. It would be a city with good public spaces and a city that is rather compact. It would be a city that really invites people to walk and bicycle as much as possible.” Research also confirmed that individuals in more walkable neighborhoods tended to have higher levels of trust and community involvement, and also reported being in good health and happy more often than those in the less walkable neighborhoods (Williams 2011).

Cultural sustainability

UNESCO (1995) defined the cultural dimension of community development[6] as being “the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs.” The basic role of art, culture, and heritage has long been to bring beauty, depth and meaning into our daily lives, they also nurture individual and community identity, promote social cohesion, and contribute to the creation of social capital (Kingston 2010). More and more, culture has been recognized as an essential dimension with the potential to transform communities and individuals in positive and meaningful ways over the long term.

Jon Hawkes (2001) wrote “The Fourth Pillar of Sustainability: Culture’s Essential Role in Public Planning", recognizing that a community’s vitality and quality of life is closely related to the vitality and quality of its cultural engagement, expression, dialogue, and celebration[7]. Current main themes of cultural sustainability are summarized below.

10 Key themes of cultural sustainability [8]

(Creative City Network, Canada 2007)

1. The culture of sustainability

Changing people’s behavior and consumption patterns, and adapting to a more sustainability-conscious lifestyle.

2. Globalization & cultural identity

Protecting local culture from globalization and market forces.

3. Heritage conservation

Recognize the history of a place and its tangible and intangible attributes. Revitalizing and re-using heritage buildings for cultural facilities.

4. Sense of place

Building sense of place through intimate connection with our natural environment and history. The importance of heritage and symbols, and the role of the arts in raising community awareness and interest in sustainability are recognized.

5. Indigenous knowledge & traditional practices

Recovery and protection of cultural health, history, and the culture of indigenous knowledge in society. Storytelling is a tool to keep memories alive and celebrate history.

6. Community cultural development

Using arts and culture as community-building tools to promote sense of place, empowerment, and public participation. Creative collaboration fosters social development and change.

7. Arts, education & youth

The arts are seen as both development and communicative tools in communities and schools, as they increase the effectiveness of teaching, research, policy, and actions toward cultural sustainability and development.

8. Sustainable design

Sustainable design is seen as a component of cultural sustainability. Supporting cultural identity can ensure the past is part of the present and will benefit the future.

9. Planning

A cultural lens is needed in city planning and design. This requires community culture-based planning strategies that address civic identity, youth, multiculturalism, and other aspects of communities.

10. Cultural policy & local government

The multidisciplinary nature of sustainable development requires that policies for sustainability transcend boundaries and integrate cultural aspects.

Hawkes’ model demonstrates that the contribution of culture to building lively cities and communities plays a major role in supporting social and economic health (Duxbury and Gillette 2007). According to him, the key to cultural sustainability is fostering partnerships, exchange, and respect between different streams of government, business, and arts organizations.

Spiritual values

“We need a spiritual compass to find our direction in life. A spiritual compass can help us to navigate our path through confusion and crises, through the suffocating allure of materialism, and through delusion and despair” (Kumar 2007).

Spiritual values are essential as an inner guiding light which helps us to develop our worldview, to seek wisdom of truth and wholeness, to find meaning of our existence and to connect with a greater transcendent reality. “Justice and compassion spring from the hearts of people who recognize our profound interdependence and interrelatedness with one another and the Earth” (Lamborn 2010). Spiritual connection is the basis for love, compassion and community. Our desire to deeply connect can be the most powerful force for good (Jones et al. 2007). People with compassion have deep concern for social equality and justice; they want to see that all people and other existences are treated with dignity and love; they become more tolerant, more embracing, always ready to reach out to help, to support, and glorify others (Lin 2006).

The virtues of justice, humility, service and compassion can motivate us to address our social and environmental challenges and to build a world of peace and harmony (Jones et al. 2007). Therefore, creating a culture of sustainability which cherishes those values of tolerance, love, care, respect… is essential in empowering and transforming community towards a sustainable future.

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[1] Manfred Max-Neef: a German-Chilean economist and environmentalist, mainly known for his human development model

[2] Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow

[3] 10 ways our wolrd is becoming more shareable (Gorenflo & Smith 2010) http://www.yesmagazine.org/happiness/10-ways-our-world-is-becoming-more-shareable

[4] Earth 2.0 – Sharing as one of the four chief operating principles of the Earth 2.0 upgrade http://earth2channel.com/blog/post/28

[5] Jan Gelh Interview (2008): Making healthy cities
http://sustainablecities.dk/en/actions/interviews/jan-gehl-making-healthy-cities

[6] Sustainable Future - Culture and Knowledge Workshop http://www.actpla.act.gov.au/topics/significant_projects/planning_studies/sustainable_future/workshop_two/issues_brief

[7] Models of sustainability incorporating culture:
http://www.creativecity.ca/se-newsletters/special-edition-4/models-sustainability.html

[8] Creative City Network, Canada 2007: Ten key themes of cultural sustainability

http://www.creativecity.ca/se-newsletters/special-edition-4/ten-key-themes-of-cultural-sustainability.html

5. Towards a low-carbon economy

“To break dependence on oil, stop contributing to global warming, and build resilient cities that can thrive in the new urban age of energy and climate uncertainty, the bottom line for local governments is this: Reduce consumption, and produce locally.” (Lerch 2009)

We are in the time of Peak Oil, and the time of cheap oil will end soon (Kuhlman 2007). Many experts have been warning about the end of our civilization as we know it is today[1], the end of oil age with its catastrophic consequences[2]. The world economy heavily depended on high-carbon fossil fuel is eventually coming into crisis as these fuels go exhausted. Moreover, the problem is not only the depletion of oil, but also many environmental, political and socio-economic issues related, especially the green house effect that leads to global climate change. Thus, we need a thoughtful vision, a shift to new models of development that are more sustainable, a green economy based on climate friendly low-carbon energy.

The concept of “Zero carbon”, one of the One Planet Living’s ten principles which aims at making building more energy efficient and delivering all energy with renewable technologies, is being developed at the Masdar initiative[3]. The European Union[4] is making real efforts to reduce green gas emissions with their “Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050.” More and more, there is a growing trend of transition to low-carbon city or post carbon city – “city on a path of resilience for a world of energy and climate uncertainty” (Lerch 2009).

The Japanese Ministry of Environment has pointed out three principles for a low-carbon society: (1) Carbon minimization in all sectors, (2) Shifting from mass consumption society toward simpler lifestyles that realize richer quality of life, (3) Coexistence with Nature - maintaining and restoring natural environment that essential for low-carbon society (Ministry of Environment - Japan 2007). Thus, building a low-carbon city requires the efforts and active involvement of whole social system.

Benefits of a low-carbon transport system

(based on the CATCH[5] factsheet series)

*ITS: Intelligent Transport System, applied ITC in smart logistics

Though Peak Oil can conceive quite catastrophic potential, it also opens some hopeful possibilities, a chance to address many underlying social problems, and the opportunity to return to simpler, healthier and more community oriented lifestyle (Kuhlman 2007). The example of Cuba can serve as a positive and instructive model for a world facing Peak Oil[6]. Cuba is the only country that has faced such a crisis – the massive reduction of fossil fuels, after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1990. Cuba's transition to a low-energy society has taken place by creating cycling culture, sharing public transportation and turning from a mechanized, industrial agricultural system to one using organic methods of farming and local, urban gardens. Lesson from Cuba’s survival gives us hope in the power of community, and the effectiveness of their strategies, which can be summarize in three words: curtailment, conservation and cooperation[7] .

The guidance for low-carbon city development focuses on three key sectors of transportation & urban structure, energy and greenery (Kamata 2011). As discussed in the previous part, conservation of green spaces, farmland and urban greenery is essential as carbon sinks for the city. Besides, shifting from urban sprawl and diffusive urban structure to compact urban development is encouraged. Compact city in harmony with nature is an urban model that consists of station-centered communities with a mix of houses, stores, offices, and convenient facilities accessible mainly by public transportation, on foot, or by bicycle (City of Nagoya 2009). Many benefits of a low-carbon transport system are illustrated in figure above.

Public transportation is key for low-carbon city; together with policies to support local consumption of goods produced locally (Ecologist 2008). Many policies available to alleviate energy insecurity can also help to mitigate local pollution and climate change, as a “triple-win” outcome (IEA 2007). For examples, development in public transportation does not only conserve energy, but also relieve congestion, improve air quality, provide access for all (APTA 2008).

Energy conservation and renewable energy

In dealing with the energy issue, the first and foremost available strategy is energy conservation, through reducing energy waste and increasing energy efficiency. We should recognize the fact that in the mean time alternative energies can not replace fossil fuels at the scale, rate and manner at which the world currently consumes them. Moreover, the deepest roots of our current energy crisis lie on the patterns of wasteful production and consumption (Capra 1988). Therefore, what truly matters is profound change in our values, attitudes and lifestyle. Energy conservation is our short-term key energy source and will always be a good solution in the long run too.

Energy conservation brings many benefits. It is low cost and available at all levels. Using less energy resource also means reducing pollution and environmental degradation, while prolong fossil fuel supplies and buying time to phase in renewable energy. Saving energy can start just right at each individual’s lifestyle. For examples: buy and use energy-efficient devices, look for electronics that are rechargeable, walk or cycle for short trips, consider car-pooling or take public transport for longer ones, eat lower on the food chains, buy regionally and seasonally produced organic food whenever possible[8]… The list goes on, and every bit can help.

Many measures can also be done on the technical sphere, where there is a lot of space for creative innovations. In housing, remarkable energy-saving can be achieved by improved heat insulation or green building design which takes advantages of natural elements like sun, wind, plants, trees, green-roofs… instead of using air conditioning. Many intelligent lighting systems with energy-saving sensors have become widely used for hotels, official buildings. In transportation, energy-saving techniques can be attained through increasing fuel efficiency. In industry, the idea of co-generation, producing both heat and electricity from one energy source can be well applied.

Eventually, we will use up non-renewable energy resources. From a long-term point of view, renewable ones are what we should rely on. The Sun shines for all of us, and the wind blows, free of charge. Although the equipments to collect solar and wind energy, such as solar panels and wind turbines cost money, when considering that the resource is taking for free, the overall cost of using solar and wind energy can make them smart choices. Renewable technology cost trends typically show a steep decline during last decades (NREL 2002), and that trends will continue to reach reasonable levels in the future as their market’s expansion. Moreover, renewable energy are often clean, such as wind and sunshine, they do not emit smoke or create pollution. Others, such as biomass, almost always cause less pollution than fossil or nuclear alternatives.

Renewable energies would bring a number of benefits to the economy. First, they help increase the diversity of energy supplies, and thus lower the dependency on imported fossil fuels and improve the security of energy supplies. Second, they help make use of local resources to provide a cost-effective energy supply while reducing regional and global greenhouse gas emissions. Since they are often flexible, small-scale designs, which take the advantages of local conditions, they can be located close to the demand. Then, transmission and distribution costs are reduced, as well as losses. Finally, from the social point of view, renewable energies can create more domestic employment. Such benefits have created a strong motivation for pursuing renewable energies. The investment costs of renewable technologies have been reduced remarkably today and this makes renewable energies more attractive, quickly developed and expanded (Nguyen 2005).

Future will belong to the age of Renewable Sources. It is also the scenario described in the Energy [R]evolution report, by the European Renewable Energy Council and Greenpeace (2007). The vision would be made by optimized integration of renewable energy, developing smart consumption, generation and distribution systems and maximizing the efficiency of building through better insulation. Solar façade would be a decorative element on office and apartment buildings. Rooftop wind and solar would be placed so that energy is generated close to the consumer. Clean electricity would also come from offshore wind parks or solar power station in deserts. Electricity would be much more prominent and become the principal source of energy for transportation, replacing gasoline and diesel fuels. Hydrogen can become a way of back-up to store solar, wind energy to use at night or during cloudy days (EREC & Green Peace 2007).

Shifting to low-carbon economy means shifting to more diversified systems which maximize the use of locally available, environmental friendly resources. “It is encouraging to know that we now have the technologies to build a new energy economy, one that is not climate-disruptive, that does not pollute air and that can last as long as the sun itself” (Brown 2008).

ICT for low-carbon urban development

From mobile phone, computer, software to internet, information and communications technology (ICT) has become integrated in our everyday life and remarkably influenced our society in many levels. Recently, ICT’s enormous potential in contributing towards a low-carbon society has been recognized and getting more and more attention. Using high technology, optical fiber, ultra-high speed, ultra-low power consumption network, nearly the most energy-efficient infrastructure, ICT can lead to smarter ways of doing and significantly reduce carbon footprint in cities (Yamakawa 2008). Efficiency of production and consumption can be improved. Movement of people and things can be reduced through online shopping, e-service, online media, teleworking, virtual meeting. ICT can also support smart and integrated city planning, environmental management, urban monitoring.

ICT applications for a low-carbon city

ICT can play crucial role in helping to improve energy efficiency in power transmission and distribution (smart grids), in smart buildings and factories, and in the use of transportation to deliver goods (smart logistics). They can also help in dematerialization[9] and shifting to a circular economy, where resources are efficiently used (WWF & Ericsson 2009). 

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[1] Life after the oil crash: http://www.famguardian.org/Subjects/Politics/Articles/LifeAfterOilCrash.htm

[2] The Olduvai theory and catastrophic consequences: http://www.energybulletin.net/node/45518

[3] Zero carbon city – Masdar initiative: http://www.masdar.ae/en/home/index.aspx

[4] EU, March 2011: “Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050” http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/roadmap/index_en.htm

[5] CATCH (Carbon Aware Travel Choice) is an EU project with the ultimate aim to reduce CO2 emissions of the urban transport sector by encouraging carbon-friendly travel choices. http://www.carbonaware.eu

[6] See more: The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil (Documentary), Arthur Morgan Institute for Community Solutions (2006): http://www.communitysolution.org

[7] See more: Peak Moment TV program (2006) Learning from Cuba response to Peak Oil, interviewing Megan Quinn. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7i6roVB5MI

[8] See more in the article on The Ecologist Magazine: 30 steps to an oil free world

http://www.theecologist.org/how_to_make_a_difference/climate_change_and_energy/360427/30_steps_to_an_oilfree_world.html

[9] Dematerialisation can be applied to a range of current everyday practices and ultimately reduce the number of material objects that need to be produced. For example, online billing, online media replace paper and CDs, thus reduce the emissions associated with their manufacture and distribution (GeSI 2008).

4. Ecological balance - City as a regenerative and symbiosis system

“Cities can become more sustainable by modeling urban processes on ecological principles of form and function, by which natural ecosystems operate. The characteristics of natural ecosystems include diversity, adaptiveness, interconnectedness, resilience, regenerative capacity, and symbiosis.” (Newman and Jennings 2008)

City as a regenerative and symbiosis system

The core philosophy of sustainability lies in the appreciation of nature as the symbol of integrity, stability and beauty. Sustainability deals much with creative designs and planning in harmony with nature. From the perspective of sustainability, nature’s design and technologies are far superior to human science and technology (Sterry 2010).

In nature, nothing is useless, nothing is waste but everything is resource for other process in the sophisticatedly interconnected web of life, where circular metabolism is the principle of ongoing self-renewal system. Thus, a sustainable system is a regenerative system that mimics nature’s circular patterns, replacing the present linear flows with cyclical flows.

On a predominantly urban planet, cities will need to adopt circular metabolic systems to assure their own long-term viability as well as that of the rural environments on which they depend; outputs will need to become inputs into the local and regional production system (Girardet 2010). Most importantly, it is crucial to return organic waste into plant nutrients, for assuring farmland’s long-term fertility. By recycling wastes back into the system, it also minimizes pollution. Sustainably using renewable resources, instead of fossil fuels and chemicals is also more resource-conserving, healthy and less environmentally damaging.

On the other hand, creating a circular urban metabolism can create resilient cities and create many new local businesses and jobs (Girardet 2010). About resilience, Melissa Sterry is developing the model of Bionic City[1], which embraces nature’s approach to building complex infrastructures: “Whereas the conventional city is a mass of static, disconnected and inert structures operating independently and irrespective of one another and their environment, the Bionic City operates as an interconnected and intelligent ecosystem in which every entity is engaged in an ongoing symbiotic relationship with all others, from the molecular to the metropolitan in scale. Beyond preventing the problems traditionally associated with flooding, the Bionic City will also feature the means to utilise excessive quantities of water, including hydropower and water harvesting technologies.” According to Melissa Sterry, the sensitivity the city has with its surroundings is key to its ability to predict and prepare for environmental changes.

One essential characteristic of nature systems that helps maintaining stability in constantly changing conditions is diversity (Holmgren 2002). Multiple associations nurture each life form, thereby increasing the stability and resilience of the whole system. In natural system, everything is connected to everything else, each important function is supported by many elements, and each element performs many functions. Thus, this provides the thinking of multiple pathways to achieve one goal as well as a common solution to disparate problems (Lyle 1994). For instance, rainwater infiltration with thoughtful design can replenish groundwater, create landscape, as well as reduce urban flooding…

The idea of solving problems simultaneously is also the main theme of SymbioCity[2], an urban sustainability approach by Sweden. Symbiosis means the integration of two or more organisms in a mutually beneficial union. Looking at the city as a whole, we find benefits through synergies in urban functions such as combination of industrial waste heat with the municipal energy plant, combination of architecture and landscape planning…

SymbioCity means urban resource efficiency – across and between different urban technological systems, letting nothing go to waste; combining energy, waste management, water supply and sanitation, traffic and transport, landscape planning, architecture and urban functions for new and better solutions as well as a more efficient use of natural resource (SymbioCity 2009).

There are many ways to make an urban function effective, but focusing on them individually may let us miss out the synergies between them, which can only be found with a holistic approach. Therefore, an integrated planning approach is key to unlocking hidden synergies in the city. Instead of managing urban sectors one by one, SymbioCity combine them, saving valuable city resources and creating new values (SymbioCity 2009).

Urban ecology and integrated land use

As the spirit of sustainability lies in the heart of nature, protecting and restoring ecology within urban areas, bringing nature back into city is an essential theme in urban sustainability. Green spaces in cities offer us a lot of benefits. They provide shading, filtering the air, enriching urban biodiversity, reducing urban heat island effect, thus simultaneously making bioclimate comfort and lowering energy use for cooling. “Urban ecology uses climate- and region-appropriate plants, xeriscaping[3] to minimize the need for fertilizer and water, and uses land for multiple functions such as food production, wildlife habitat, recreation and beautification” (Roseland 2005). Urban ecology also acknowledges the role of water and urban aquatic systems – streams, ponds, rivers in revitalizing cities. Besides those ecological advantages, thoughtful urban designs in concert with nature and embracing culture of a place also have many aesthetic values, social and psychological healing benefits. Green public spaces can enhance community connection and interaction, providing places to contemplate, play, relax and meditate.

Since land use permeates nearly all urban aspects, appropriate land use is a decisive factor for a sustainable city. In order to be sustainable, city should minimize land consumption, integrating green spaces and preserving farm land for food security as well as for other ecological functions. It is not always easy as land is a limited resource and the cost of real estates is often too high, while cities have to balance among conflicts of urbanization, development, population pressure with environmental and social goals. Therefore, symbiosis integrating planning or whole systems design[4] for multi-purpose use can help afford this balance. Many examples illustrate this concept (Roseland 2005): green roof, solar photovoltaic panel on rooftop (no extra space needed); parks, urban gardening as both recreation areas and edible landscaping; constructed wetlands as sewage treatment facility, natural habitats, recreation areas, drainage for rainwater run off…

Urban agriculture

Urban agriculture or urban farming can be understood as farming within and around cities. “Urban agriculture is a dynamic concept that comprises of a variety of farming systems, ranging from subsistence production and processing at household level to fully commercialized agriculture” (Zeeuw et al. n.d.).

Urban agriculture as a tool for sustainable urban development
(adapted from Zeeuw)

In response to serious problems of poverty, food insecurity, and environmental degradation, there is a growing attention and promotion of urban farming all over the world, along with the movement of resilient, self-sustaining and low carbon cities. Increasingly, urban farming has been seen as part of sustainable urban development.

Urban farming can contribute to a food secure and inclusive city, a productive and environmentally healthy city (fig. 3.5). Therefore, it is necessary to acknowledge the links between urban agriculture and various policy target areas, such as the alleviation of poverty, economic development, or environmental protection, in order to justify the inclusion and mainstreaming of urban agriculture into municipal policies and public support programs (Zeeuw et al. n.d.).

The most striking feature of urban farming, which distinguishes it from rural agriculture, is its integration into the urban economic and ecological system (RUAF)[5]. Urban farms and gardens complement rural agriculture in local food systems and can also become an important income supplement for households. Since food production is close to home and market, it helps reduce energy for transportation and packaging costs. This is also helpful in situations when supply chains from rural areas have been interrupted and cities are unable to receive food imports (Worldwatch 2011). Another essential benefit of urban agriculture is that it can contribute to waste management and nutrient recycling by turning urban wastes into a productive resource, thus reducing the use of expensive chemical fertilizers and improving local soil fertility (Veenhuizen and Danso 2007).

In his theory of Food Urbanism (2009), Jason Grimm showed that urban food system of production, processing, distribution, marketing, consumption and waste management can become infrastructure that transforms urban experience by thoughtful sensitive design and planning. According to Grimm, food production can be integrated into the daily activities of community residents through recreation and communal gatherings. Community gardens can also provide beautiful and pleasing spaces, helping improve the air quality in urban areas. And through cooperative market outlets, a larger series of food access points can be developed, supplying healthy fresh and affordable food.

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[1] “Bionic City”- article on Earth 2.0 magazine: http://earth2channel.com/magazine/article/22

[2] More on SymbioCity: http://www.symbiocity.org

[3] Xeriscaping refers to landscaping and gardening in ways that reduce or eliminate the need for supplemental water from irrigation

[4] Whole systems design concept for sustainability: http://www.wholesystemsdesign.com

[5]  RUAF – Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture & Food Security: What is urban agriculture? http://www.ruaf.org/node/512

3. Principles for Sustainability

    “Vision is seeing the potential purpose hidden in the chaos of the moment, but which could bring to birth new possibilities for a person, a company or a nation. 
Vision is seeing what life could be like while dealing with life as it is.
Vision deals with those deeper human intangibles that alone give ultimate purpose to life. In the end, vision must always deal with life’s qualities, not with its quantities.”
(Van Duisen Wilhard) 

Principles for Sustainability

Sustainability literally means the capacity to endure over time. Symbolically, it refers to what is of true values, what is good, genuine and resilient, which can stand the test of time. Sustainability associates with balance and equity in a comprehensive approach, which acknowledges our dependence on the health of natural systems for our survival and well-being, the limit carrying capacity of the Earth and the detrimental impact of unchecked human activities (Edwards 2005). Thus, sustainability strives for balance among the interconnected ecological, economic and social systems. As implied from the most popular definition of sustainable development  ("Sustainable development is development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”, the Brundtland report 1987), sustainability requires a long term, intergenerational perspective. Equity should be maintained, not only across communities within generation but also between generations.

*****

The Earth Charter is a global consensus, a product of a decade-long, worldwide, cross-cultural dialogue on common goals and shared values. As “a vision of hope and a call to action”, it provides us with inspiration and guidance to a sustainable future. In October 2003, UNESCO adopted a resolution recognizing the Earth Charter as an important ethical framework for sustainability (ECI Secretariat 2011). Main principles of the Earth Charter are summarized here:

THE EARTH CHARTER’S PRINCIPLES

Respect and Care for the Community of Life:
    To respect Earth and life in all its diversity;
    To care for the community of life with understanding, compassion and love;
    To build democratic societies that are just, sustainable, participatory and peaceful; and
    To secure Earth's bounty and beauty for present and future generations.
In order to fulfill these four broad commitments, it is necessary to:
Ecological Integrity
    Protect and restore the integrity of Earth's ecological systems, with special concern for biological diversity and the natural processes that sustain life.
    Prevent harm as the best method of environmental protection and, when knowledge is limited, apply a precautionary approach.
    Adopt patterns of production, consumption, and reproduction that safeguard Earth's regenerative capacities, human rights, and community well-being.
    Advance the study of ecological sustainability and promote the open exchange and wide application of the knowledge acquired.
Social and Economic Justice
    Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental imperative.
    Ensure that economic activities and institutions at all levels promote human development in an equitable and sustainable manner.
    Affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and ensure universal access to education, health care, and economic opportunity.
    Uphold the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and social environment supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual well-being, with special attention to the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities.
Democracy, Nonviolence, and Peace
    Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, and provide transparency and accountability in governance, inclusive participation in decision making, and access to justice.
    Integrate into formal education and life-long learning the knowledge, values, and skills needed for a sustainable way of life.
    Treat all living beings with respect and consideration.

    Promote a culture of tolerance, nonviolence, and peace.

The spirit of the Earth Charter is beautifully highlighted in the core principle of Respect and Care for the Community of Life: respect Earth and life in all its diversity, care for the community of life with understanding, compassion and love. It helps us to recognize what is deeply and fundamentally important to us – our connection with each other and with the natural world. That holistic worldview leads us to do no harm and cooperate with nature, with all other humans and other living beings in the web of life.

One Planet Living  is a global initiative developed by BioRegional  and WWF .  While the Earth Charter is an ethical framework, the One Planet Living’s sustainable city concepts are more of a practical vision that helps us to focus on how we can take action for a sustainable future.

The Ten Principles of One Planet Living

(Source: BioRegional and WWF)

The Philips Center's framework for Livable Cities- In the urban context, sustainability can be perceived as visions of livable and lovable cities (The Philips Center for Health & Wellbeing 2010). Experts from the Philips Center have identified three important interlinked ingredients of a livable city: resilience, inclusiveness and authenticity.

(Soucre: The Philips Center)

In their conceptual framework for urban sustainability, think tank of the Philips Center pointed out that these three essential attributes of a livable city should present in all dimensions of sustainability (social, cultural, economic, technical and environmental).

So, a livable city should be a resilient city, environmentally, socially and economically; this is particularly true in the growing context of climate change, as resilience is about adaptability, flexibility, the ability of a city to balance continuity with change. A resilient city is a “strong” city which has inner strength to help it remain stable through shocks and stresses. A livable city is also an inclusive city, which cherishes social integration and cohesion. Moreover, a livable as well as lovable city usually has its own unique identity.

VISION OF A LIVABLE & LOVABLE CITY
(The Philips Center 2010)

Resilience
    Preservation of biodiversity and ecosystems for local environmental quality
    Energy, food, water, materials at low global ecological footprint
    Green areas and water as environmental mitigation factors, parks as “lungs” of a city
    Cultural diversity, multiple lifestyle, continuity and change, tradition and innovation
    Adaptability, regeneration, transformation, interdependency, systems view
    Economic diversity, local entrepreneurship, job creation…

Inclusiveness
    Public green areas as outdoor gyms, recreational spaces, social bridges…
     Empowerment, justice and freedom
    Equitable access to resources, rights to public goods and services
    Social participation, economic inclusion
    Cultural diversity and integration, tolerance
    Sense of ownership, security and safety

Authenticity
    Local ecosystem for local identity, native species as uniqueness of a place
Natural heritage as collective memory
Connection between people and nature
Historical heritage and identity
Valuable local knowledge and culture
Appropriate innovation and choices of change
Cultural and technological rootedness
Sense of place, belonging and pride
Connection between people and people, people and land

Ecocity features main characteristics of an ecocity model envisioned by experts of Ecocity Builders , using integrated, whole systems approach for city design, building, and operations in relation to the surrounding environment and natural resources of the region (Ecocity Builders 2010).

Principal features of an ecocity
(adapted from Ecocity Builders)

The following parts will discuss briefly more concepts and models for urban sustainability, in terms of its interrelated dimensions, ecological balance, economic development, social cohesion, cultural vitality and good governance for sustainable urban development.

2. Backcasting and systems approach

Backcasting (Source: The Natural Step*)

Visionary (backcasting) and holistic (systems) approach was used in dealing with urban challenges and building the framework for sustainability. The concept of “backcasting” is a way of planning which begins with the vision of what we want in the future, and then goes back to the present, figures out what we have to do to get there. Having first a desirable vision in mind is a powerful step to manifest it in reality. As visions provide inspiration and guidance for decision-making towards sustainability, they allow us to ensure that our actions and strategies aligned with the direction we want to head and as efficiently as possible. 

Since backcasting starts with the final end, the image of the desired outcome, it usually refers to long time frames, where there is great uncertainty and less control over what may happen. Hence, the future vision may usefully be defined using principles rather than specifics (Outhwaite 2009). Backcasting does not describe for measurable and fixed targets and goals, but rather for flexible, evolutionary and continuously re-created visions. 

“Backcasting is an opportunity to let go of the current reality for a moment and freely imagine what might be possible” (Outhwaite 2009). As forecasting mostly based on current trend, it tends to present a more limited range of options, hence stifling creativity and new possibilities, and more important, it projects the problems of today into the future. “When we start with problems, often the vision is limited to having fewer problems, or solving an isolated problem; it does not necessarily encompass how we can satisfy one’s needs more effectively, or how we can live rich and meaningful lives” (Hallsmith 2003). As Albert Einstein once said “the significant problems we face cannot be solved at the same level of thinking we were at when we created them”, backcasting is particularly useful when current trends are part of the problems that we are trying to tackle. Thus, though forecasting is very effective if we are happy with current situation, if what we want is a very different future than the one we are headed toward, that is when we need to backcast (Baxter et al. 2009). 

In brief, backcasting is looking at the current situation from a future perspective, which allows complex problems to be approached by let us first simply focus on outcomes, then think backwards to identify numerous potential pathways to reach the desired outcomes. In turn, exploring many alternatives makes it easier to find solutions that best fit and optimize all of the parts and relationships within the system toward achieving these outcomes (Haines et al. 2005). Therefore, backcasting is a helpful methodology in planning for urban sustainability because of the complexity of urban challenges and the need to develop new ways of doing things to address them. 

Backward thinking is the core of where to start in systems thinking, a systems view and comprehensive approach that can help us to design smart and enduring solutions to problems. Systems thinking is a holistic approach which encourages us to see the “whole” - the bigger picture, so that we can structure more effective, efficient and creative system solutions. 

The systems view looks at the world in terms of relationships and integration, recognizing the essential interrelatedness and interdependence of all phenomena – physical, biological, psychological, social, and cultural (Capra 1988). “In order to understand what’s behind our sustainability challenges, we need to step back and look at the big picture, see the connections, identify the root causes of our problems and find the leverage points for change” (Baxter et al. 2009). 

Systems approach attempts to widen the circle of understanding in order to comprehend the connections that exist between all things in the web of life. It is a continuing process that involves honoring the past, being present, looking ahead, and keeping future generations in mind (Newman and Jennings 2008). Identifying cause – and – effect relationships requires us to see not only bigger but deeper, further in all dimensions of space and time. The following quote by Grazia is a beautiful metaphor on contemplation through longer time frames to recognize patterns: “Imagine you want to shoot an arrow. The further back you pull the bowstring, the further the arrow flies. The same is true for our own understanding and vision. The further back we look into history, the further we can see into our future” (Grazia 2009).

The holistic approach towards sustainable urban development is a strategic thinking to address the complex challenges of our urban issues. Thus, urban sustainability visions should encompass an integrated and interdisciplinary framework in which cities are considered as parts of larger natural ecosystems and socio-economic communities.

(excerpt from my thesis - to be continued)

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[*] More on backcasting at "The Natural Steps – Backcasting": http://www.naturalstep.org/backcasting