7. Good governance

“Good governance must be built from the ground up. It cannot be imposed, either by national authorities, or by international agencies. Good governance is the fruit of true dedication, selfless leadership, and a politics of integrity.” (Annan 1997)

Good governance plays a decisive role in urban management, planning and operating towards sustainability. While government is an entity (an official governing organization), governance refers to the process of decision making and the process by which decisions are implemented (UNESCAP). These governing processes involve not only the state (government), but also the private sector and the whole civil society.

Three interrelated actors of governance

All three interconnected actors are critical for urban sustainability. Government creates a conducive political and legal environment; the private sector generates jobs and income; and civil society facilitates political and social interaction - mobilizing groups to participate in economic, social and political activities (UNDP 1997). Since each part has weaknesses and strengths, it is important for good governance to promote constructive interaction, partnership, cooperation and coherence among all three.

The box below describes an ideal image of good governance, adapted from UNESCAP and UNDP. Main attributes of good governance are long term vision, openness - transparency, responsibility - accountability, equity - inclusiveness, democratic participation - citizen involvement, effectiveness, efficiency and responsiveness to the needs of the people.

Key attributes of good governance (UNESCAP[1] & UNDP[2])

Participation

All men and women should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests. Such broad participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities to participate constructively.

Rule of law

Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially.

Transparency

Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes, institutions and information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and enough information is provided to understand and monitor them.

Responsiveness

Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

Consensus oriented

Good governance requires mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved.

Equity and inclusiveness

A society’s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being.

Effectiveness and efficiency

Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources.

Accountability

Decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society organisations are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders.

Strategic vision

Leaders and the public have a broad and long-term perspective on good governance and sustainable development. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is grounded.

These features assure that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities and the needs of future generations are taken into account, and the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. Good governance also contributes to peace and security because it gives societies sound structures for inclusive, equitable economic and social development. “In post-conflict settings, good governance can promote reconciliation and offer a path for consolidating peace” (Annan 1997).

Good governance demands the consent and the participation of the governed and the full and lasting involvement of all citizens (Annan 1997). Key strategies for cultivating good governance include developing more decentralized state, active civic organizations, and responsible private sectors (Wheeler et al. 2005).

Decentralization is an important strategy to attain citizen involvement and government responsiveness. Since power and decisions are closer to local people, decentralized government is more knowledgeable and accessible. It can respond faster, more effectively to people’s needs, with more accountability and transparency. Resource use would be more equitable and the gap between the rich and the poor would be narrowed (Wheeler et al. 2005).

As Kofi Annan once said (1997), good governance has to begin with the will of the people. The will of the people must be the basis of governmental authority. That is the foundation of democracy. Democratization is definitely vital in building good governance, but it requires mature civic awareness, ongoing education, the development of government structures, institutions, and time. “Once established, democracies need to be tended carefully in order to stay healthy and provide good governance for the people” (Wheeler et al. 2005).

Nowadays, the development of ICTs promises a huge potential of facilitating governance processes. Core components of e-governance include e-participation, e-administration and e-service delivery[3]. E-governance can enhance government and public institution efficiency, transparency and accountability by providing better public service and information delivery to citizens and others. Moreover, e-governance fosters greater interaction between authorities and citizens, thus encouraging more public participation and involvement. Various online tools can be used, such as RSS feeds, tag clouds, interactive map, webcasts for information; blogs, online polls for consultation; e-petitions, wikis, forum and virtual worlds for participation (WEF 2011). Social networks also support e-governance with more equity, decentralization and democratization.

On the other hand, e-governance can make a significant positive impact on reducing carbon dioxide emissions through the dematerialization of public service delivery. Many paper-based services can be digitalized and situations where face-to-face interaction has been previously required (to prove identity) can be done virtually (GeSI 2008).

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[1] UNESCAP, Good governance: http://www.unescap.org/pdd/prs/ProjectActivities/Ongoing/gg/governance.asp

[2] Governance for sustainable human development (UNDP 1997):  http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy

[3] Governance assessment portal: http://www.gaportal.org/areas-of-governance/e-governance

6. Social connectedness and cultural vitality

“When you are connected to yourself, you live with integrity – you act on your values and you are committed to truth and honesty. When you are connected to others, you commit to living in community, to caring for the common good, and to working for equality, justice and democracy. You commit to living joyfully with family, friends and the wider community. When you are connected to the planet, you try to live more sustainably, not using up or destroying nature.” (Andrews 2006)

“If the definition of a sustainable society involves meeting human needs, it is worth asking what human needs are, and whether or not the system we are designing meets real human needs in a synergistic and positively reinforcing way” (Holocene 2004). According to Manfred Max-Neef[1], most of our needs are related to the social (protection, affection, understanding, participation) and cultural (recreation, creation, identity) aspects of life. Once the basic need for subsistence has been met, the fundamental human needs are understood as an interrelated and interactive system, not as a hierarchy as postulated by Maslow[2] (Hallsmith 2003). It was also reflected in the core principle of the Earth Charter “Respect and Care for the community of life: to care for the community of life with understanding, compassion and love; to build democratic societies that are just, sustainable, participatory and peaceful”.

Social and cultural intertwined dimensions of urban sustainability

Social sustainability

According to the WACOSS’s model, socially sustainable communities are equitable, diverse, connected, democratic and provide a good quality of life (Hodgson 2008). So, a sustainable city is a just and inclusive city, where benefits of development would be distributed fairly across society. It is a city for all, regardless of their status, gender, race, ethnicity or religion. “An inclusive city provides the opportunities and support that enables all residents to develop fully and allow them access to decent housing, transport, education, recreation, communication, employment and the judiciary, as well as cultural and religious expression. In an inclusive city, residents take part in decision-making that ranges from the political to issues of daily life. Such participation injects a sense of belonging, identity, place into residents, and guarantees them a stake in the benefits of urban development” (UN-HABITAT 2010).

In an inclusive city, diversity is respected; people are tolerant of differences, and are open-minded. This creates condition for true communication can develop. Communication leads to trust, trust to sharing, sharing to co-operation and thus community solidarity is strengthened.

As human beings, we all need meaningful relationships with others, the sense of community, the sense of connectedness, knowing that another person cares, supports and looks out for us. This corresponds with Maslow’s need for love/belonging and Max-Neef’s need for affection and participation. People with a strong sense of community are more likely to report being in good health and less likely to feel isolated than those that have a weak sense of community (Jochmann 2010).

Research has shown that communities where there are high levels of volunteerism and many opportunities for people to have contact with others outside of work or school have more consensus and are more resilient (Hallsmith 2003). Thus, public spaces in city are very important for communication, interaction and exchange to build sense of community. Jan Gehl[5] once said, “a sustainable city would be a very people-friendly city. It would be a city with good public spaces and a city that is rather compact. It would be a city that really invites people to walk and bicycle as much as possible.” Research also confirmed that individuals in more walkable neighborhoods tended to have higher levels of trust and community involvement, and also reported being in good health and happy more often than those in the less walkable neighborhoods (Williams 2011).

Cultural sustainability

UNESCO (1995) defined the cultural dimension of community development[6] as being “the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs.” The basic role of art, culture, and heritage has long been to bring beauty, depth and meaning into our daily lives, they also nurture individual and community identity, promote social cohesion, and contribute to the creation of social capital (Kingston 2010). More and more, culture has been recognized as an essential dimension with the potential to transform communities and individuals in positive and meaningful ways over the long term.

Jon Hawkes (2001) wrote “The Fourth Pillar of Sustainability: Culture’s Essential Role in Public Planning", recognizing that a community’s vitality and quality of life is closely related to the vitality and quality of its cultural engagement, expression, dialogue, and celebration[7]. Current main themes of cultural sustainability are summarized below.

10 Key themes of cultural sustainability [8]

(Creative City Network, Canada 2007)

1. The culture of sustainability

Changing people’s behavior and consumption patterns, and adapting to a more sustainability-conscious lifestyle.

2. Globalization & cultural identity

Protecting local culture from globalization and market forces.

3. Heritage conservation

Recognize the history of a place and its tangible and intangible attributes. Revitalizing and re-using heritage buildings for cultural facilities.

4. Sense of place

Building sense of place through intimate connection with our natural environment and history. The importance of heritage and symbols, and the role of the arts in raising community awareness and interest in sustainability are recognized.

5. Indigenous knowledge & traditional practices

Recovery and protection of cultural health, history, and the culture of indigenous knowledge in society. Storytelling is a tool to keep memories alive and celebrate history.

6. Community cultural development

Using arts and culture as community-building tools to promote sense of place, empowerment, and public participation. Creative collaboration fosters social development and change.

7. Arts, education & youth

The arts are seen as both development and communicative tools in communities and schools, as they increase the effectiveness of teaching, research, policy, and actions toward cultural sustainability and development.

8. Sustainable design

Sustainable design is seen as a component of cultural sustainability. Supporting cultural identity can ensure the past is part of the present and will benefit the future.

9. Planning

A cultural lens is needed in city planning and design. This requires community culture-based planning strategies that address civic identity, youth, multiculturalism, and other aspects of communities.

10. Cultural policy & local government

The multidisciplinary nature of sustainable development requires that policies for sustainability transcend boundaries and integrate cultural aspects.

Hawkes’ model demonstrates that the contribution of culture to building lively cities and communities plays a major role in supporting social and economic health (Duxbury and Gillette 2007). According to him, the key to cultural sustainability is fostering partnerships, exchange, and respect between different streams of government, business, and arts organizations.

Spiritual values

“We need a spiritual compass to find our direction in life. A spiritual compass can help us to navigate our path through confusion and crises, through the suffocating allure of materialism, and through delusion and despair” (Kumar 2007).

Spiritual values are essential as an inner guiding light which helps us to develop our worldview, to seek wisdom of truth and wholeness, to find meaning of our existence and to connect with a greater transcendent reality. “Justice and compassion spring from the hearts of people who recognize our profound interdependence and interrelatedness with one another and the Earth” (Lamborn 2010). Spiritual connection is the basis for love, compassion and community. Our desire to deeply connect can be the most powerful force for good (Jones et al. 2007). People with compassion have deep concern for social equality and justice; they want to see that all people and other existences are treated with dignity and love; they become more tolerant, more embracing, always ready to reach out to help, to support, and glorify others (Lin 2006).

The virtues of justice, humility, service and compassion can motivate us to address our social and environmental challenges and to build a world of peace and harmony (Jones et al. 2007). Therefore, creating a culture of sustainability which cherishes those values of tolerance, love, care, respect… is essential in empowering and transforming community towards a sustainable future.

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[1] Manfred Max-Neef: a German-Chilean economist and environmentalist, mainly known for his human development model

[2] Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow

[3] 10 ways our wolrd is becoming more shareable (Gorenflo & Smith 2010) http://www.yesmagazine.org/happiness/10-ways-our-world-is-becoming-more-shareable

[4] Earth 2.0 – Sharing as one of the four chief operating principles of the Earth 2.0 upgrade http://earth2channel.com/blog/post/28

[5] Jan Gelh Interview (2008): Making healthy cities
http://sustainablecities.dk/en/actions/interviews/jan-gehl-making-healthy-cities

[6] Sustainable Future - Culture and Knowledge Workshop http://www.actpla.act.gov.au/topics/significant_projects/planning_studies/sustainable_future/workshop_two/issues_brief

[7] Models of sustainability incorporating culture:
http://www.creativecity.ca/se-newsletters/special-edition-4/models-sustainability.html

[8] Creative City Network, Canada 2007: Ten key themes of cultural sustainability

http://www.creativecity.ca/se-newsletters/special-edition-4/ten-key-themes-of-cultural-sustainability.html

5. Towards a low-carbon economy

“To break dependence on oil, stop contributing to global warming, and build resilient cities that can thrive in the new urban age of energy and climate uncertainty, the bottom line for local governments is this: Reduce consumption, and produce locally.” (Lerch 2009)

We are in the time of Peak Oil, and the time of cheap oil will end soon (Kuhlman 2007). Many experts have been warning about the end of our civilization as we know it is today[1], the end of oil age with its catastrophic consequences[2]. The world economy heavily depended on high-carbon fossil fuel is eventually coming into crisis as these fuels go exhausted. Moreover, the problem is not only the depletion of oil, but also many environmental, political and socio-economic issues related, especially the green house effect that leads to global climate change. Thus, we need a thoughtful vision, a shift to new models of development that are more sustainable, a green economy based on climate friendly low-carbon energy.

The concept of “Zero carbon”, one of the One Planet Living’s ten principles which aims at making building more energy efficient and delivering all energy with renewable technologies, is being developed at the Masdar initiative[3]. The European Union[4] is making real efforts to reduce green gas emissions with their “Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050.” More and more, there is a growing trend of transition to low-carbon city or post carbon city – “city on a path of resilience for a world of energy and climate uncertainty” (Lerch 2009).

The Japanese Ministry of Environment has pointed out three principles for a low-carbon society: (1) Carbon minimization in all sectors, (2) Shifting from mass consumption society toward simpler lifestyles that realize richer quality of life, (3) Coexistence with Nature - maintaining and restoring natural environment that essential for low-carbon society (Ministry of Environment - Japan 2007). Thus, building a low-carbon city requires the efforts and active involvement of whole social system.

Benefits of a low-carbon transport system

(based on the CATCH[5] factsheet series)

*ITS: Intelligent Transport System, applied ITC in smart logistics

Though Peak Oil can conceive quite catastrophic potential, it also opens some hopeful possibilities, a chance to address many underlying social problems, and the opportunity to return to simpler, healthier and more community oriented lifestyle (Kuhlman 2007). The example of Cuba can serve as a positive and instructive model for a world facing Peak Oil[6]. Cuba is the only country that has faced such a crisis – the massive reduction of fossil fuels, after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1990. Cuba's transition to a low-energy society has taken place by creating cycling culture, sharing public transportation and turning from a mechanized, industrial agricultural system to one using organic methods of farming and local, urban gardens. Lesson from Cuba’s survival gives us hope in the power of community, and the effectiveness of their strategies, which can be summarize in three words: curtailment, conservation and cooperation[7] .

The guidance for low-carbon city development focuses on three key sectors of transportation & urban structure, energy and greenery (Kamata 2011). As discussed in the previous part, conservation of green spaces, farmland and urban greenery is essential as carbon sinks for the city. Besides, shifting from urban sprawl and diffusive urban structure to compact urban development is encouraged. Compact city in harmony with nature is an urban model that consists of station-centered communities with a mix of houses, stores, offices, and convenient facilities accessible mainly by public transportation, on foot, or by bicycle (City of Nagoya 2009). Many benefits of a low-carbon transport system are illustrated in figure above.

Public transportation is key for low-carbon city; together with policies to support local consumption of goods produced locally (Ecologist 2008). Many policies available to alleviate energy insecurity can also help to mitigate local pollution and climate change, as a “triple-win” outcome (IEA 2007). For examples, development in public transportation does not only conserve energy, but also relieve congestion, improve air quality, provide access for all (APTA 2008).

Energy conservation and renewable energy

In dealing with the energy issue, the first and foremost available strategy is energy conservation, through reducing energy waste and increasing energy efficiency. We should recognize the fact that in the mean time alternative energies can not replace fossil fuels at the scale, rate and manner at which the world currently consumes them. Moreover, the deepest roots of our current energy crisis lie on the patterns of wasteful production and consumption (Capra 1988). Therefore, what truly matters is profound change in our values, attitudes and lifestyle. Energy conservation is our short-term key energy source and will always be a good solution in the long run too.

Energy conservation brings many benefits. It is low cost and available at all levels. Using less energy resource also means reducing pollution and environmental degradation, while prolong fossil fuel supplies and buying time to phase in renewable energy. Saving energy can start just right at each individual’s lifestyle. For examples: buy and use energy-efficient devices, look for electronics that are rechargeable, walk or cycle for short trips, consider car-pooling or take public transport for longer ones, eat lower on the food chains, buy regionally and seasonally produced organic food whenever possible[8]… The list goes on, and every bit can help.

Many measures can also be done on the technical sphere, where there is a lot of space for creative innovations. In housing, remarkable energy-saving can be achieved by improved heat insulation or green building design which takes advantages of natural elements like sun, wind, plants, trees, green-roofs… instead of using air conditioning. Many intelligent lighting systems with energy-saving sensors have become widely used for hotels, official buildings. In transportation, energy-saving techniques can be attained through increasing fuel efficiency. In industry, the idea of co-generation, producing both heat and electricity from one energy source can be well applied.

Eventually, we will use up non-renewable energy resources. From a long-term point of view, renewable ones are what we should rely on. The Sun shines for all of us, and the wind blows, free of charge. Although the equipments to collect solar and wind energy, such as solar panels and wind turbines cost money, when considering that the resource is taking for free, the overall cost of using solar and wind energy can make them smart choices. Renewable technology cost trends typically show a steep decline during last decades (NREL 2002), and that trends will continue to reach reasonable levels in the future as their market’s expansion. Moreover, renewable energy are often clean, such as wind and sunshine, they do not emit smoke or create pollution. Others, such as biomass, almost always cause less pollution than fossil or nuclear alternatives.

Renewable energies would bring a number of benefits to the economy. First, they help increase the diversity of energy supplies, and thus lower the dependency on imported fossil fuels and improve the security of energy supplies. Second, they help make use of local resources to provide a cost-effective energy supply while reducing regional and global greenhouse gas emissions. Since they are often flexible, small-scale designs, which take the advantages of local conditions, they can be located close to the demand. Then, transmission and distribution costs are reduced, as well as losses. Finally, from the social point of view, renewable energies can create more domestic employment. Such benefits have created a strong motivation for pursuing renewable energies. The investment costs of renewable technologies have been reduced remarkably today and this makes renewable energies more attractive, quickly developed and expanded (Nguyen 2005).

Future will belong to the age of Renewable Sources. It is also the scenario described in the Energy [R]evolution report, by the European Renewable Energy Council and Greenpeace (2007). The vision would be made by optimized integration of renewable energy, developing smart consumption, generation and distribution systems and maximizing the efficiency of building through better insulation. Solar façade would be a decorative element on office and apartment buildings. Rooftop wind and solar would be placed so that energy is generated close to the consumer. Clean electricity would also come from offshore wind parks or solar power station in deserts. Electricity would be much more prominent and become the principal source of energy for transportation, replacing gasoline and diesel fuels. Hydrogen can become a way of back-up to store solar, wind energy to use at night or during cloudy days (EREC & Green Peace 2007).

Shifting to low-carbon economy means shifting to more diversified systems which maximize the use of locally available, environmental friendly resources. “It is encouraging to know that we now have the technologies to build a new energy economy, one that is not climate-disruptive, that does not pollute air and that can last as long as the sun itself” (Brown 2008).

ICT for low-carbon urban development

From mobile phone, computer, software to internet, information and communications technology (ICT) has become integrated in our everyday life and remarkably influenced our society in many levels. Recently, ICT’s enormous potential in contributing towards a low-carbon society has been recognized and getting more and more attention. Using high technology, optical fiber, ultra-high speed, ultra-low power consumption network, nearly the most energy-efficient infrastructure, ICT can lead to smarter ways of doing and significantly reduce carbon footprint in cities (Yamakawa 2008). Efficiency of production and consumption can be improved. Movement of people and things can be reduced through online shopping, e-service, online media, teleworking, virtual meeting. ICT can also support smart and integrated city planning, environmental management, urban monitoring.

ICT applications for a low-carbon city

ICT can play crucial role in helping to improve energy efficiency in power transmission and distribution (smart grids), in smart buildings and factories, and in the use of transportation to deliver goods (smart logistics). They can also help in dematerialization[9] and shifting to a circular economy, where resources are efficiently used (WWF & Ericsson 2009). 

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[1] Life after the oil crash: http://www.famguardian.org/Subjects/Politics/Articles/LifeAfterOilCrash.htm

[2] The Olduvai theory and catastrophic consequences: http://www.energybulletin.net/node/45518

[3] Zero carbon city – Masdar initiative: http://www.masdar.ae/en/home/index.aspx

[4] EU, March 2011: “Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050” http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/roadmap/index_en.htm

[5] CATCH (Carbon Aware Travel Choice) is an EU project with the ultimate aim to reduce CO2 emissions of the urban transport sector by encouraging carbon-friendly travel choices. http://www.carbonaware.eu

[6] See more: The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil (Documentary), Arthur Morgan Institute for Community Solutions (2006): http://www.communitysolution.org

[7] See more: Peak Moment TV program (2006) Learning from Cuba response to Peak Oil, interviewing Megan Quinn. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7i6roVB5MI

[8] See more in the article on The Ecologist Magazine: 30 steps to an oil free world

http://www.theecologist.org/how_to_make_a_difference/climate_change_and_energy/360427/30_steps_to_an_oilfree_world.html

[9] Dematerialisation can be applied to a range of current everyday practices and ultimately reduce the number of material objects that need to be produced. For example, online billing, online media replace paper and CDs, thus reduce the emissions associated with their manufacture and distribution (GeSI 2008).